Agriculture and Science 2019/12

Irrigation and Fertilization Techniques for Producing Large Red Shuho Cherry

Yamagata Prefectural Agricultural Research Center
Horticultural Experiment Station, Horticultural Environment Dept.
　Senior Specialist Takayuki Ando

Introduction

　Yamagata Prefecture is one of the leading fruit tree producing prefectures in Japan, ranking third in the nation in terms of fruit tree production in fiscal year 2009. Among these, oto is the "face" of Yamagata Prefecture, boasting a production value of 36.8 billion yen and accounting for 761 TP3T of the national production.
　As we actively export agricultural products in the future, most of the oriental peppers distributed overseas are 3L size (31 mm or larger in diameter), whereas Japanese fruits are 2L size even if they are large. Although they are highly evaluated for their good eating quality and fruit coloring, they are inferior in terms of size, making them weak in terms of competitiveness.

　In order to increase the competitiveness of Yamagata-grown oats in overseas markets, we have been developing technology to produce large, high-quality oats, mainly 3L size, by using the prefectural variety "Benishuho". These results were obtained through the "Development of Production and Processing Technologies for Super-Large Ohtou for Enhancing International Competitiveness and Expanding Exports", an innovative technology development and urgent deployment project (regional strategic project) conducted by the National Institute of Agrobiological Sciences (NIAS), Japan.

2. test outline

(1) Establishment of soil moisture management indexes for production of large red grapes.

　Although there is a standard irrigation technique for "Sato Nishiki" using pF value as an indicator (Table 1), there is no standard for "Benihide", and irrigation has been carried out based on experience and intuition. In fact, when irrigation was carried out according to the irrigation guideline for "Sato Nishiki," the grapes often showed symptoms of water stress such as leaf curling and wilting as the harvest period approached, suggesting that more irrigation was necessary for "Beni Shuho" than for "Sato Nishiki.
　For this reason, a test area was set up in which soil moisture was managed at a higher level than the "standard for Sato Nishiki." Trees grown in 60-liter pots were tested, and soil moisture management indices were created.

(2) Improvement of nitrogen fertilization method for "Red Shuho

　In Yamagata Prefecture, the standard annual nitrogen fertilizer rate is 15 kg-N/10a, which is generally applied as a post-harvest fertilizer and a basal fertilizer from the lower part of September to the upper part of October (Table 2). However, because Beni Shuho is a fertile grape variety, its vigor tends to be a little weaker than that of Sato Nishiki, and its fruits tend to be less fertile. As a countermeasure, we recommend increasing the ratio of post-harvest fertilizer to 50%, which has been shown to maintain vigor and produce good fruit. In addition, when the full annual amount of fertilizer was applied to "Sato Nishiki" immediately after harvest, the growth and fruit quality were equal to or better than those of "Sato Nishiki", and the effect of increased yield was obtained.

3. test method

(1) Soil moisture management for production of large "Red Shuho" grapes (pot cultivation)

　Red Shuho" (5th year, as of 2016) cultivars grown in 60L pots were tested to investigate fruit quality when irrigation was managed at a higher soil moisture level than that of "Sato Nishiki" (Table 3), using the standard irrigation rate of "Sato Nishiki" as the practice in 2016, and at different growth stages. The irrigation was applied when the pF value reached a predetermined level. Fruit set was managed by picking 3 buds/bunch of short-fruited branches before budding and 2 fruits/bunch of short-fruited branches around 20 days after full bloom.
　In 2017, a new plot was added in which soil moisture was further managed for enrichment (Table 4) , and fruit quality was investigated. Note that in 2017, budding was conducted on 2 buds/flower bunches of short-fruited branches before budding, and harvesting was conducted on 2 full-fruited/flower bunches of short-fruited branches around 20 days after full bloom.

(2) Soil moisture management of "Red Shuho" created (field test)

　In order to verify the test results with pot-grown trees, we conducted a verification test using 21-year-old "Benishuho" / Aoba cherry trees that have been planted in the field since 2017, with the test plot where soil moisture management was conducted based on the irrigation guidelines of "Sato Nishiki" as the conventional irrigated plot and the improved irrigated plot as the moisture management with the best fruit quality (growth) in the pot test (Table 5). The verification test was conducted using the conventional irrigated area as the test area and the improved irrigated area as the area with the best fruit quality (growth) in the pot test (Table 5). In order to eliminate the influence of rainfall, the test was conducted under rain cover from the flowering period until harvest. For fruit set management, 3 buds/bunch of short-fruited branches were harvested before budding, and 2 fruits/bunch of short-fruited branches were harvested around 20 days after full bloom.

(3) Improve nitrogen fertilization methods

　Twenty-year-old 'Red Shuho'/Aoba cherry stands (as of 2016) were tested in on-farm plots (fine-grained brown lowland soil) for two years starting in 2016. The annual nitrogen fertilizer rate was set at 15 kg-N/10a, and the fertilizer rate after harvest was 50% and the base fertilizer rate in mid-September was 50%. The effect of the improved nitrogen fertilization method was examined by comparing the growth and fruit quality of the area where all fertilizer was applied after harvest (hereinafter called "improved area"). The effect of the improved nitrogen fertilization method was examined by comparing the growth and fruit quality of the conventional-fertilizer-applied area with that of the fully fertilized area after harvest (hereinafter referred to as the improved area) (Table 6). Fruiting management was the same as in the irrigation test.

4. test results

(1) Soil moisture management for production of large "Red Shuho" grapes (pot trial)

　In particular, the wettest area with the highest soil moisture among the test areas in 2016 had the highest percentage of fruits larger than 2 L, and the sugar content was also higher than that of the conventional area (Table 7). There were no significant differences in fruit characteristics (coloration and compressive strength) other than single fruit weight among all the test areas (Table 8), suggesting that it is more important to manage soil moisture until harvest time for "Red Shuho" than for "Sato Nishiki".

　In 2017, we established a wet area, which had the best results in 2016, and an additional area where soil moisture was managed more frequently. As in the previous year, the wet area had the highest percentage of fruits larger than 2 L (Table 9). As in 2016, fruit traits other than fruit size and single fruit weight were similar (Table 10). A follow-up test was conducted in 2018, with similar results as in 2017 (data omitted). Based on the results of these two years, pF 1.8 from germination to the coloring stage, pF 2.0 from the coloring stage to one week before harvest, and pF 2.4 thereafter are considered suitable for the production of large Red Shuho grapes.

(2) Verification of soil moisture management indices in the field (irrigation treatment test) and nitrogen fertilization method
　　　Improvement test (fertilizer treatment test)

　A combination of improved irrigation and fertilizer treatments were applied to 22-year-old 'Red Shuho'/'Aoba-zakura' trees (2018) in a plot in the horticultural experiment station. The results showed that the number of flower buds per bouquet-like short-fruited branch was higher in the irrigated area than in the conventional area, indicating the effect of irrigation (Table 11). Fruiting rate was higher in the improved area where all fertilizer was applied after harvest, and the number of fruiting shoots per bouquet of short-fruited branches was higher in the improved area.

　The difference in fruit diameter between the irrigated and non-irrigated areas became larger after the coloring period, and the fruit tended to continue to grow until the latter half of the season when a certain level of soil moisture was maintained until harvest (data omitted). The actual percentage of fruit greater than 3 L per tree was higher in the improved irrigated area, at 801 TP3T or more, and 301 TP3T or more higher than in the conventional irrigated area (Table 12). In terms of fruit traits other than fruit size, the compressive strength of fruit in the irrigated area was higher, but the other traits were the same (Table 13). The results were also similar in the field plots where the same moisture management was conducted (data omitted). On the other hand, there was no effect of improved fertilizer application on fruit size and compressive strength.
　The growth results were obtained up to 2 years after fertilization, and the effects of the treatments on shoot length and leaf size were similar to those of the conventional treatments in both the irrigation and fertilization tests (data omitted).

Summary

　Although there was no effect of improved fertilizer application on the production of large grapes of "Red Shuho," the effect of improved irrigation was very high. Therefore, it is important to irrigate "Beni Shuho" with slightly more soil moisture than the standard irrigation of "Sato Nishiki" until harvest, and to manage irrigation according to the indices in Table 14 based on pF values. The total post-harvest fertilization of "Red Shuho" improved the fruiting rate and the tree growth was equivalent to that of conventional fertilization (3 T of 501 TP each applied as a fertilizer and a base fertilizer), suggesting that this method is effective in reducing fertilizer use.

Agricultural Activities and Greenhouse Gas Emissions Reduction

Professor Emeritus, Tohoku University
Masanori Saito

1. planetary boundary

　It has been exactly 10 years since Rockström et al. introduced the concept of Planetary Boundaries (PB) in Nature in 2009, which describes the environmental capacity for sustainable human development within the finite Earth system. PB is the environmental capacity for sustainable human development in the finite earth system. In other words, it indicates that there is a risk of "irreversible and rapid environmental change" after human activities exceed the threshold of PB.

　Already in the 1960s, the term "Spaceship Earth" pointed out the problem of human beings using fossil energy and spreading pollution in a closed system called the Earth. Furthermore, the Club of Rome pointed out the limits of the earth's resources in "The Limits to Growth" and stated that "if current trends such as population growth and environmental pollution continue, within 100 years the earth's resources will be depleted to the point of extinction.
In 1972, the IPCC sounded the alarm that "the growth of the world economy will reach its limits. Subsequently, the problem of global warming became apparent, and the IPCC was established in 1988. Over the past half century, the issue of reconciling global environmental problems with sustainable human development has been discussed and researched, ranging from the finite nature of the earth's resources and environmental pollution in a closed system to the impact of human activities on the global climate system. Although numerous recommendations have been reflected in various policies, global environmental problems are becoming increasingly serious.

　The PB paper cited at the beginning of this paper analyzed the current status of nine major processes related to the global environment, and found that climate change, lack of biodiversity, and biogeochemical processes (nitrogen and phosphorus) had already exceeded the PB, or the threshold that would cause irreversible changes in the global environment (Figure 1). Calculations based on various models suggest that if the PB is below the threshold, compensatory actions in the Earth system will prevent irreversible and abrupt changes from occurring.

　In this paper, I would like to discuss "climate change, especially greenhouse gases", which were pointed out to have already crossed the threshold in the PB 10 years ago, and the problem has become even more serious during the past decade, and their relation to agricultural activities from the perspective of the life cycle of food production and consumption.

2. life cycle assessment (LCA)

　Environmental problems are extremely diverse, ranging from the local to the global level, and trade-offs often occur where technologies introduced to reduce some environmental impacts increase other impacts. Life cycle assessment (LCA) methods have been developed to evaluate the total environmental impacts of products and services throughout their life cycles, and are now widely used as a general tool for environmental impact assessment in various industries.

　Life cycle assessment (LCA) is a method of analyzing and evaluating the environmental impact of a product based on a comprehensive survey of the types and amounts of energy, materials, and waste generated throughout the product's life cycle, from raw materials to manufacturing, use (consumption), and disposal. LCA has been developed for industrial products, but there are high expectations for the LCA method as an evaluation tool for environmentally friendly agriculture, and since then, research on LCA for food systems, including not only production sites but also distribution and processing of agricultural products, has been expanding both in Japan and overseas.

3. greenhouse gases

　CO2, CH4, N2O, and various chlorofluorocarbons are major greenhouse gases. In particular, CO2 derived from the combustion of fossil fuels is the main cause of global warming, and its emission reduction is being promoted. On the other hand, CO2 is also released by decomposition of soil organic matter and forest biomass due to land use change such as deforestation, and the amount of CO2 emissions on a global scale is enormous.
According to the IPCC's Fourth Assessment Report, about 30% of global greenhouse gas emissions come from agriculture and forestry activities.

　In 2014, FAO warned that greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture, forestry, and fisheries have almost doubled in the past 50 years and that if no action is taken now, emissions will increase by another 301 TP3T by 2050. In other words, in order to minimize climate change, there is no time to spare for greenhouse gas reduction in the agricultural sector.

4. greenhouse gas emissions in the food system

　Agricultural products are produced on the farm, stored or processed, delivered to consumers, consumed, and the residues are disposed of. By examining the environmental impact of food products throughout their life cycle, it is possible to determine the processes that emit greenhouse gases during food production (Figure 2).

　As an example, the figure shows how much CO2 is emitted for a cup of rice (Figure 3). The emissions of CH4 and N2O are calculated by multiplying their emissions by the global warming potential (21 for CH4 and 310 for N2O) to standardize them as CO2 equivalents. Fossil fuel-derived CO2 is more significant in cultivation and cooking, while CH4 emissions from rice paddies account for a larger share of GHG emissions. The CO2 emissions from cooking are from electricity used for rice cookers, while those from cultivation are from fertilizers and pesticides, fuel for agricultural machinery, and so on. According to the figure showing the breakdown of cultivation, fossil fuels and electricity for plowing, rice planting, harvesting, and drying account for a large proportion of CO2 emissions, while those related to the production of fertilizers and pesticides are grouped under cultivation management and do not account for a large proportion.

　A comparison of CO2 emissions from production and distribution for other crops is shown in Figure 4. Facility cultivation uses fuel for heating, which results in large CO2 emissions, and for crops imported from overseas, the share of CO2 emissions from transportation is relatively large. Although not shown in this figure, it is difficult to say that domestic wheat crops have lower CO2 emissions than foreign crops because of intensive cultivation and the large amount of energy consumed for drying (wheat) after harvest. In an example of whole-grain bread production in the UK, from wheat cultivation to bread production, more than half of the greenhouse gases were emitted during the cultivation and harvesting stages, with more than 40% of the total CO2 emissions coming from the production of nitrogen fertilizer (equivalent to 20kgN/10a ammonium nitrate; ammonium nitrate is widely used in the UK) (Figure 5). Figure 5). In general, fertilizers account for a high proportion of GHG emissions in large-scale cultivation.

　In the case of rice cultivation in Japan, efforts to reduce CH4 emissions from paddy fields (e.g., by extending the drying period) are effective measures to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, and in the case of institutional vegetable cultivation, reducing energy consumption for heating and cooling can lead to GHG emission reductions. On the other hand, in the case of wheat in the UK, improving fertilizer use efficiency, i.e., reducing the amount of fertilizer applied, leads to immediate GHG emission reductions.

5. Carbon footprint

　The "carbon footprint," which indicates the amount of CO2 emitted by individual food products as CO2 emissions on packaging and other items, has been studied in Japan and abroad as an effective indicator to make the impact of food products on global warming "visible. Footprint" means "footprint" and indicates how much CO2 is emitted by the time a product is manufactured. Through a project by the Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry (METI) and others, a third-party certification system for "carbon footprint" has been established, and certified products are marked with the CFP mark to clearly indicate the amount of CO2 emissions throughout the product life cycle (Figure 6). More than 40 agricultural products and processed foods, such as rice, ham, and processed foods, have already obtained the CFP Mark certification.
https://www.cfp-japan.jp/about/

　On the other hand, many producers and businesses in the agricultural production field would like to evaluate CO2 emissions at the production stage first, rather than evaluating the life cycle from production to distribution, consumption, and disposal. In response to such requests, the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries (MAFF) has established the "Visualization of CO2 Emissions in Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries" portal site, which allows producers to calculate the CO2 emissions of their agricultural products relatively easily from their own farming records (Figure 7).
https://agri-co2mieruka.jp/ This site also provides data from conventional farming methods in various regions as a comparison. Although it has been nearly 10 years since "CO2 visualization" projects such as the carbon footprint system have been promoted, it is difficult to say that they are necessarily widespread.

　There may be various reasons for this, but in addition to the lack of understanding among consumers, even those consumers who do have some understanding may not change their consumption behavior based on carbon footprints. In addition, energy conservation in facility cultivation and reduction of fertilizer application in large-scale cultivation are highly effective from a business perspective, making it easy for producers to actively engage in such activities, but in the case of general agricultural producers and food processors, it is believed that efforts to reduce greenhouse effect are not linked to business benefits, such as sales. In this regard, it is important to consider how these systems can be made more effective in the future. The question now is how to link these systems to effective CO2 emissions.

Summary

　Global warming is causing serious problems in the field of cultivation, such as poor ripening and quality deterioration due to high temperatures, and a variety of countermeasure technologies are being developed. On the other hand, we must not forget that agricultural production itself emits greenhouse gases and is responsible for global warming. Looking at CO2 emissions from the food system as a whole, it is clear that the production (cultivation and harvesting) stage has a large share of the load, so it is important to take measures (such as reducing the use of fertilizers, pesticides, and fuel through efficient use) to reduce CO2 emissions.

　On the other hand, biogeochemical processes (nitrogen and phosphorus) mentioned in the PB refer to the biogeochemical cycling of major nutrients, nitrogen and phosphorus, and are inseparably related to agriculture, especially fertilizer use. Last year, a paper was published in Nature (Springmann et al., Nature 562: 520-524, 2018) that examined how the food system as a whole can reduce its environmental impact, including greenhouse gases, to below PB. The environmental impacts were estimated under several scenarios, including technological measures such as improving fertilizer efficiency, reducing food loss, and shifting from meat to vegetarian diets, all of which would have difficulty reducing environmental impacts below the PB.

　Without parallel and synergistic effects of these measures, it will be difficult to achieve the goal, he said. This paper is a discussion at the global level, but it is also a discussion of our country's agriculture and food system from a multifaceted viewpoint as well.
It is necessary to implement various measures in parallel.

2019 General Index of Previous Issues of this Journal

<January issue
§ Stable production with low cost
　　　　　　　　　Hiromichi Mochizuki, General Manager, Production Management Division, Jcam Agri Co.
Development of a Total Basal Fertilizer Cultivation Technique for Semi-Promoted Tomato Plots with Accumulated §Phosphoric Acid
　　　　　　　　　Vegetable Research Laboratory, Horticulture Research Department, Aichi Prefectural Agricultural Experiment Station
　　　　　　　　　Hiroyuki Sato
§Examination of the practicality of J-Coat, a rice one-shot fertilizer coated with a new type of film
　　　　　　　　　Shizuoka Institute of Agriculture and Forestry Research, Department of Paddy Production Technology
　　　　　　　　　Makoto Matsunaga Kotaro Shiratori
　　　　　　　　(Currently, Livestock Technology Team, Livestock Production Promotion Division, Shizuoka Prefectural Government)
<February/March combined issue
§ Tomato cord cultivation - Fertilizer on a cord with controlled-release fertilizer
　　　　　　　　　Masaharu Masuda (Former Graduate School of Natural Science and Technology, Okayama University)
§ Chemical fertilizers: from the advent of chemical fertilizers to the present and the future
　　　-The role that chemical fertilizers have played...
　　　　　　　　　Hokkaido Branch Office, JCM Agri Co.
　　　　　　　　　Teruo Matsunaka Technical Advisor
<April issue
§The trend and function of nitrates in the body
　　　　　　　　　Masaru Shibata, Technical Advisor, JCAM Agri Co.
Suppression of absorption of radioactive cesium in brown rice by §Potassium fertilization
　　Measures and Efforts for Agricultural Recovery in Evacuation-Directed Areas
　　　　　　　　　Fukushima Prefectural Agricultural Research Center Hama Agricultural Revitalization Research Center
　　　　　　　　　Takashi Saito
<May issue
Growth yield and degree of film collapse of rice plants using §-coated urea fertilizer (J-Coat)
　　　　　　　　　Former Aizu Regional Research Institute, Fukushima Prefectural Agricultural Research Center
　　　　　　　　　Specialist Hiroshi Kawashima
§MEISTER Fertilizer Efficacy Test on Paddy Rice in Jilin Province, China (Report 1)
　　　　　　　　　Akita Prefectural University Professor Emeritus Atsushi Sato
<June issue
§ Rice MEISTER Fertilizer Efficacy Test in Jilin Province, China (Report 2)
　　　　　　　　　Akita Prefectural University Professor Emeritus Atsushi Sato
§ Phosphoric acid reduction index in leafy vegetables (komatsuna and spinach)
　　　　　　　　　Soil Chemistry Department, Gifu Agricultural Technology Center
　　　　　　　　　Tatsumi Wada, Research Specialist <Jul.
§Incorporation of slow-release fertilizers in pear cultivation in snowy regions
　　Establishment of simultaneous application of base fertilizer and courtesy fertilizer using BB fertilizers
　　　　　　　　　Tango Agricultural Research Institute, Agriculture and Forestry Center, Kyoto Prefectural Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries Technology Center
　　　　　　　　　Toshiharu Yamaguchi
§Improvement of Seed Protein Quality by "Wheat Fertilizer Daimyo," a Fertilizer with Controlled Fertilizer Effects on Wheat
　　　　　　　　　Kumamoto Prefectural Agricultural Research Center, Production Environment Research Institute
　　　　　　　　　Researcher Kentaro Kadota
.
§When and how long to flood, as well as liquid fertilizer after flooding
　　Effects of an injection treatment on growth and yield of lettuce
　　　　　　　　　Hyogo Prefectural Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries Technology Center, Awaji Agricultural Technology Center, Agriculture Department
　　　　　　　　　Senior Researcher Shinichi Nakano
§ The problem of thatch happening on the golf course and
　　　Lawn Thatch Decomposition Effectiveness Test of Fertilizer with CDU
　　　　　　　　　General Incorporated Foundation Kansai Green Research Institute
<Oct.
§Science of seeing the invisible - Application to the field of agriculture
　　　　　　　　　Fukushima University Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Food and Agricultural Sciences Professor TAIRA Osamu
§An approach to citrus one-shot fertilization system in Shizuoka Prefecture
　　　　　　　　　Citrus and Fruit Tree Section, Mandarin Oranges and Horticulture Department, JA Shizuoka Keizairen
<Nov.
§ Fertilization management of park trees by local residents
　　　　　　　　　Hideyuki Saito1 , Shinya Sugawara1 , Mieko Kutsuzawa2 , Masato Yuri3 , Hiroki Hashimoto4 , Shinichi Tsuji5
(1 Miyagi University, 2 Tsubame no Mori Park Management Association, 3 Yamamoto Town Hall, 4 Yamamoto Reconstruction Station, 5 Kobe Town Planning Institute)
§ Integrated control of above-ground and below-ground management to support smart agriculture in horticulture facilities
　　　　　　　　　National Agriculture and Food Research Organization
　　　　　　　　　Vegetable and Flower Research Division Yasunaga Iwasaki
<Dec.
§ Irrigation and fertilizer application techniques for the production of large "Beni Shuho" grapes
　　　　　　　　　Yamagata Prefectural Agricultural Research Center, Horticulture Experiment Station, Horticulture Environment Department
　　　　　　　　　Senior Specialist Takayuki Ando
§ Agricultural Activities and Greenhouse Gas Emissions Reduction
　　　　　　　　　Masanori Saito, Professor Emeritus, Tohoku University
§ 2019 General Index of this Journal's Previous Editions